An Example of Review of a Phenomenal Study

Abstract

Introduction

As a inquiry methodology, phenomenology is uniquely positioned to help wellness professions education (HPE) scholars learn from the experiences of others. Phenomenology is a form of qualitative research that focuses on the study of an individual'south lived experiences within the world. Although it is a powerful approach for inquiry, the nature of this methodology is often intimidating to HPE researchers. This commodity aims to explain phenomenology by reviewing the key philosophical and methodological differences betwixt two of the major approaches to phenomenology: transcendental and hermeneutic. Understanding the ontological and epistemological assumptions underpinning these approaches is essential for successfully conducting phenomenological inquiry.

Purpose

This review provides an introduction to phenomenology and demonstrates how it tin can be applied to HPE enquiry. We illustrate the two main sub-types of phenomenology and detail their ontological, epistemological, and methodological differences.

Conclusions

Phenomenology is a powerful research strategy that is well suited for exploring challenging problems in HPE. By building a better understanding of the nature of phenomenology and working to ensure proper alignment between the specific research question and the researcher'south underlying philosophy, nosotros hope to encourage HPE scholars to consider its utility when addressing their research questions.

A Qualitative Space highlights enquiry approaches that push button readers and scholars deeper into qualitative methods and methodologies. Contributors to A Qualitative Space may: advance new ideas nearly qualitative methodologies, methods, and/or techniques; debate current and historical trends in qualitative research; craft and share nuanced reflections on how data drove methods should exist revised or modified; reflect on the epistemological bases of qualitative research; or fence that some qualitative practices should end. Share your thoughts on Twitter using the hashtag: #aqualspace

Introduction

Human beings, who are almost unique in having the ability to learn from the feel of others, are also remarkable for their credible disinclination to do so.—Douglas Adams

Despite the fact that humans are one of few animals who can learn from the experiences of others, we are frequently loath to do and so. Perhaps this is because we assume that similar circumstances could never befall the states. Perhaps this is because nosotros assume that, if placed in the aforementioned state of affairs, we would brand wiser decisions. Perhaps it is considering we assume the subjective experience of an individual is not as reliably informative as objective information collected from external reality. Regardless of the assumptions grounding this anticipation, it is essential for scholars to learn from the experiences of others. In fact, it is a foundational premise of inquiry. Research involves the detailed study of a subject (i. due east., an individual, groups of individuals, societies, or objects) to observe information or to reach a new agreement of the subject [1]. Such detailed written report often requires understanding the experiences of others and so that we can glean new insights almost a particular phenomenon. Scholars in wellness professions education (HPE) are savvy to the demand to learn from the experiences of others. To maximize the effectiveness of feedback, of workplace-based learning, of clinical reasoning, or of any other of a myriad of phenomena, HPE researchers need to be able to carefully explore and acquire from the experiences of others. What often curtails these efforts is a lack of methodology. In other words: HPE researchers need to know how to larn from the experiences of others.

Phenomenology is a qualitative inquiry approach that is uniquely positioned to support this research. All the same, as an approach for engaging in HPE research, phenomenology does not have a strong following. It is piece of cake to encounter why: To truly understand phenomenology requires developing an appreciation for the philosophies that underpin information technology. Those philosophies theorize the significant of human being experience. In other words, engaging in phenomenological research requires the scholar to get familiar with the philosophical moorings of our interpretations of human experience. This may exist a daunting chore, but Douglas Adams never said learning from the experiences of others would exist easy.

The questions that phenomenology can reply, and the insights this kind of research can provide, are of foundational importance to HPE: What is the experience of shame and the impact of that experience for medical learners [2]? What does information technology mean to be an compassionate clinician [iii]? What is the medical learner'due south experience of failure on high stakes exams [iv]? How do experienced clinicians learn to communicate their clinical reasoning in professional practice [v]? Answers to such questions plant the underpinnings of our field. To answer such questions, we can use phenomenology to learn from the experiences of others.

In this manuscript, we delve into the philosophies and methodologies of two varieties of phenomenology: hermeneutic and transcendental. Our goal is not to simplify the complexities of phenomenology, nor to contend that all HPE researchers should use phenomenology. Instead, we propose that phenomenology is a valuable approach to research that needs to have a identify in HPE'due south torso of research. We will place these two approaches in the context of their philosophical roots to illustrate the similarities and differences between these means of engaging in phenomenological enquiry. In then doing, we hope to encourage HPE researchers to thoughtfully engage in phenomenology when their research questions necessitate this research approach.

What is phenomenology?

In simple terms, phenomenology can be defined as an approach to research that seeks to describe the essence of a phenomenon past exploring it from the perspective of those who have experienced it [half dozen]. The goal of phenomenology is to describe the meaning of this experience—both in terms of what was experienced and how it was experienced [6]. There are dissimilar kinds of phenomenology, each rooted in different means of conceiving of the what and how of homo experience. In other words, each approach of phenomenology is rooted in a unlike school of philosophy. To choose a phenomenological research methodology requires the scholar to reverberate on the philosophy they encompass. Given that there are many unlike philosophies that a scientist tin comprehend, information technology is not surprising that there is broad set up of phenomenological traditions that a researcher can draw from. In this manuscript, we highlight the transcendental and the hermeneutic approaches to phenomenology, but a broader phenomenological landscape exists. For instance, the Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, published in 1997, features manufactures on vii different types of phenomenology [7]. More than gimmicky traditions take also been developed that bridge the transcendental/hermeneutic divide. Several of these traditions are detailed in Tab. 1 [8,ix,ten].

Tabular array 1 Clarification of iii gimmicky approaches to phenomenology

Full size tabular array

To understand whatever of these approaches to phenomenology, it is useful to recollect that almost approaches hold a similar definition of phenomenology's object of study. Phenomenology is unremarkably described as the written report of phenomena as they manifest in our experience, of the way nosotros perceive and empathize phenomena, and of the significant phenomena have in our subjective feel [11]. More than but stated, phenomenology is the written report of an individual's lived experience of the world [12]. By examining an experience as it is subjectively lived, new meanings and appreciations can exist developed to inform, or even re-orient, how we understand that experience [13].

From this shared understanding, we at present accost how transcendental (descriptive) phenomenology and hermeneutic (interpretive) phenomenology approach this study in unlike means. These approaches are summarized in Tab. 2.

Table 2 Comparison of transcendental and hermeneutic phenomenology

Full size table

Transcendental phenomenology

Phenomenology originates in philosophical traditions that evolved over centuries; nevertheless, well-nigh historians credit Edmund Husserl for defining phenomenology in the early on 20th century [14]. Agreement some of Husserl's academic history tin provide insight into his transcendental approach to phenomenology. Husserl's initial work focused on mathematics as the object of study [15], but then moved to examine other phenomena. Husserl's approach to philosophy sought to equally value both objective and subjective experiences, with his body of piece of work 'culminating in his interest in "pure phenomenology" or working to find a universal foundation of philosophy and science [13].' Husserl rejected positivism'due south absolute focus on objective observations of external reality, and instead argued that phenomena as perceived past the individual'southward consciousness should exist the object of scientific study. Thus, Husserl contended that no assumptions should inform phenomenology's inquiry; no philosophical or scientific theory, no deductive logic procedures, and no other empirical scientific discipline or psychological speculations should inform the inquiry. Instead, the focus should be on what is given directly to an individual'southward intuition [16]. As Staiti recently argued, this attitude towards phenomenology is akin to that of 'a natural scientist who has just discovered a previously unknown dimension of reality [17].' This shift in focus requires the researcher to return 'to the self to find the nature and meaning of things [18].' As Husserl asserted: 'Ultimately, all genuine and, in particular, all scientific knowledge, rests on inner show [19].' Inner evidence—that is, what appears in consciousness—is where a phenomenon is to exist studied. What this means for Husserl is that subjective and objective noesis are intimately intertwined. To understand the reality of a phenomenon is to understand the phenomenon as it is lived by a person. This lived experience is, for Husserl, a dimension of existence that had yet to exist discovered [17]. For Husserl, phenomenology was rooted in an epistemological attitude; for him, the critical question of a phenomenological investigation was 'What is it for an individual to know or to exist witting of a phenomenon [20]?' In Husserl'due south conception of phenomenology, any experienced miracle could be the object of written report thereby pushing analysis beyond mere sensory perception (i. e. what I see, hear, bear on) to experiences of thought, memory, imagination, or emotion [21].

Husserl contended that a lived experience of a phenomenon had features that were commonly perceived by individuals who had experienced the phenomenon. These commonly perceived features—or universal essences—tin can be identified to develop a generalizable description. The essences of a phenomenon, according to Husserl, represented the truthful nature of that miracle. The challenge facing the researcher engaging in Husserl's phenomenology, then, is:

To draw things in themselves, to permit what is before one to enter consciousness and exist understood in its meanings and essences in the light of intuition and self-reflection. The procedure involves a blending of what is really present with what is imagined equally present from the vantage point of possible meanings; thus, a unity of the real and the ideal [xviii].

In other words, the challenge is to engage in the report of a person's lived experience of a miracle that highlights the universal essences of that phenomenon [22]. This requires the researcher to append his/her own attitudes, beliefs, and suppositions in social club to focus on the participants' experience of the phenomenon and place the essences of the phenomenon. One of Husserl's great contributions to philosophy and science is the method he developed that enables researchers 'to suspend the natural attitude as well as the naïve agreement of what we call the man mind and to disclose the realm of transcendental subjectivity equally a new field of inquiry [17].'

In Husserl'south' transcendental phenomenology (also sometimes referred to equally the descriptive arroyo), the researcher'southward goal is to achieve transcendental subjectivity—a state wherein 'the touch of the researcher on the inquiry is constantly assessed and biases and preconceptions neutralized, so that they do not influence the object of study [22].' The researcher is to stand apart, and not allow his/her subjectivity to inform the descriptions offered past the participants. This lived dimension of experience is best approached by the researcher who can accomplish the state of the transcendental I—a state wherein the objective researcher moves from the participants' descriptions of facts of the lived experience, to universal essences of the phenomenon at which point consciousness itself could be grasped [23]. In the land of the transcendental I, the researcher is able to admission the participants' feel of the phenomenon pre-reflectively—that is 'without resorting to categorization on conceptualization, and quite frequently includes what is taken for granted or those things that are common sense [xiii].' The transcendental I brings no definitions, expectations, supposition or hypotheses to the study; instead, in this land, the researcher assumes the position of atabula rasa, a blank slate, that uses participants' experiences to develop an understanding of the essence of a phenomenon.

This state is accomplished via a series of reductions. The first reduction, referred to equally the transcendental phase, requires transcendence from the natural attitude of everyday life through epoche, also called the process of bracketing. This is the process through which the researchers ready bated—or bracket off as one would in a mathematical equation—previous understandings, past knowledge, and assumptions about the phenomenon of involvement. The previous understandings that must be gear up aside include a broad range of sources including: scientific theories, knowledge, or explanation; truth or falsity of claims made past participants; and personal views and experiences of the researcher [24]. In the 2d stage, transcendental-phenomenological reduction, each participant'south experience is considered individually and a complete description of the phenomenon's meanings and essences is constructed [18]. Adjacent is reduction via imaginative variation wherein all the participants' descriptions of conscious feel are distilled to a unified synthesis of essences through the procedure of free variation [25]. This process relies on intuition and requires imagining multiple variations of the phenomenon in society to arrive at the essences of the phenomenon [25]. These essences become the foundation for all noesis about the phenomenon.

The specific processes followed to realize these reductions vary across researchers engaging in transcendental phenomenology. Ane unremarkably used transcendental phenomenological method is that of psychologist Clark Moustakas, and other approaches include the works of: Colaizzi [26], Giorgi [27], and Polkinghorne [28]. Regardless of the arroyo used, to engage rigorously in transcendental phenomenology, the researcher must exist vigilant in his/her bracketing piece of work and so that the researcher'southward individual subjectivity does non bias information analysis and interpretations. This is the challenge of reaching the state of the transcendental I where the researcher's ain interpretations, perceptions, categories, etc. do not influence the processes of reduction. It is important to notation that mod philosophers go on to wrestle with Husserl's notions of bracketing. If bracketing is successfully achieved, the researcher sets bated the earth and the entirety of its content—including the researcher's physical body [17]. While dedication to this bracketing is challenging to maintain, Husserl asserts that it is necessary. Suspending reliance on and foundations in physical reality is the only manner to abandon our human being experiences in such a manner equally to discover the transcendent I. Researchers might borrow [29] practices from other qualitative inquiry methods to achieve this goal. For instance, a study could be designed to have multiple researchers triangulate [thirty] their reductions to ostend appropriate bracketing was maintained. Alternatively, a study could involve validation of information [18] via member checking [31] to ensure that the identified essences resonated with the participants' experiences.

Husserl's transcendental phenomenology has been employed by HPE researchers. For example, in 2012, Tavakol et al. studied medical students' understanding of empathy by engaging in transcendental phenomenological inquiry [32]. The authors note that medial students' loss of empathy as they transition from pre-clinical to clinical grooming is well documented in the medical literature [33], and has been establish to negatively affect patients and the quality of healthcare provided [34]. Tavakol et al. [32] used a descriptive phenomenological approach (i. e. using the methodology of Colaizzi and Giorgi) to written report on the phenomenon of empathy as experienced by medical students during the class of their training. The authors identified two key factors impacting empathic power: innate chapters for empathy and barriers to displaying empathy [32].

Hermeneutic phenomenology

Hermeneutic phenomenology, too known equally interpretive phenomenology, originates from the work of Martin Heidegger. Heidegger began his career in theology, just then moved into academia as a pupil of philosophy. While Heidegger's philosophical research began in alignment with Husserl's piece of work, he subsequently challenged several key aspects of Husserl'due south transcendental phenomenology. A foundational break from his predecessor was the focus of phenomenological inquiry. While Husserl was interested in the nature of knowledge (i. e., an epistemological focus), Heidegger was interested in the nature of being and temporality (i. e., an ontological focus) [21]. With this focus on human feel and how it is lived, hermeneutic phenomenology moves away from Husserl's focus on 'acts of attention, perceiving, recalling and thinking near the world [13]' and on human beings equally knowers of phenomenon. In contrast, Heidegger is interested in homo beings as actors in the globe then focuses on the relationship between an individual and his/her lifeworld. Heidegger'south term lifeworld referred to the thought that 'individuals' realities are invariably influenced past the world in which they live [22].' Given this orientation, individuals are understood as always already having an understanding of themselves inside the earth, even if they are not constantly, explicitly and/or consciously aware of that understanding [17]. For Heidegger, an individual's conscious feel of a miracle is not divide from the world, nor from the private's personal history. Consciousness is, instead, a formation of historically lived experiences including a person'due south individual history and the culture in which he/she was raised [22]. An individual cannot step out of his/her lifeworld. Humans cannot experience a miracle without referring back to his/her groundwork understandings. Hermeneutic phenomenology, so, seeks 'to empathise the deeper layers of human being experience that lay obscured beneath surface sensation and how the private'due south lifeworld, or the earth as he or she pre-reflectively experiences it, influences this experience [35].' Hermeneutic phenomenology studies individuals' narratives to understand what those individuals experience in their daily lives, in their lifeworlds.

But the hermeneutic tradition pushes beyond a descriptive understanding. Hermeneutic phenomenology is rooted in estimation—interpreting experiences and phenomena via the individual's lifeworld. Hither, Heidegger's groundwork in theology tin be seen equally influencing his approach to phenomenology. Hermeneutics refers to the interpretation of texts, to theories adult from the need to translate literature from different languages and where admission to the original text (due east. grand., the Bible) was problematic [36]. If all human feel is informed by the individual'southward lifeworld, and if all experiences must be interpreted through that background, hermeneutic phenomenology must go across clarification of the phenomenon, to the estimation of the miracle. The researcher must exist enlightened of the influence of the individual's background and business relationship for the influences they exert on the private's experience of beingness.

This is not to say that the private's subjective experience—which is inextricably linked with social, cultural, and political contexts—is pre-determined. Heidegger argued that individuals have situated freedom. Situated liberty is a concept that asserts that 'individuals are free to make choices, but their freedom is not absolute; it is confining by the specific atmospheric condition of their daily lives [22].' Hermeneutic phenomenology studies the meanings of an individual's existence in the globe, as their experience is interpreted through his/her lifeworld, and how these meanings and interpretations influence the choices that the individual makes [xiii]. This focus requires the hermeneutic phenomenologist to interpret the narratives provided by research participants in relation to their private contexts in order to illuminate the cardinal structures of participants' agreement of existence and how that shaped the decisions made by the individual [37].

Another central attribute that distinguishes hermeneutic phenomenology is the role of the researcher in the inquiry. Instead of bracketing off the researcher'due south subjective perspective, hermeneutic phenomenology recognizes that the researcher, like the enquiry bailiwick, cannot be rid of his/her lifeworld. Instead, the researcher'due south past experiences and knowledge are valuable guides to the inquiry. It is the researcher'due south education and cognition base of operations that lead him/her to consider a miracle or experience worthy of investigation. To ask the inquiry to have an unbiased arroyo to the data is inconsistent with hermeneutic phenomenology's philosophical roots. Instead, researchers working from this tradition should openly acknowledge their preconceptions, and reflect on how their subjectivity is office of the analysis process [xvi].

The interpretive work of hermeneutic phenomenology is not bound to a single set of rule-bound analytical techniques; instead, it is an interpretive process involving the interplay of multiple analysis activities [35]. In general, this process:

Starts with identifying an interesting phenomenon that directs our attention towards lived experience. Members of the research team then investigate feel every bit information technology is lived, rather than every bit information technology is conceptualized, and reflect on the essential [phenomenological] themes that narrate the participant'south feel with the phenomenon, simultaneously reflecting on their ain experiences. Researchers capture their reflections in writing so reflect and write over again, creating continuous, iterative cycles to develop increasingly robust and nuanced analyses. Throughout the analysis, researchers must maintain a strong orientation to the phenomenon under study (i.e., avoid distractions) and attend to the interactions between the parts and the whole. This last step, too described every bit the hermeneutic circumvolve, emphasizes the do of deliberately considering how the data (the parts) contribute to the evolving understanding of the phenomena (the whole) and how each enhances the significant of the other [35].

In the hermeneutic approach to phenomenology, theories can help to focus enquiry, to make decisions about research participants, and the way research questions can be addressed [22]. Theories can besides be used to help understand the findings of the report. One scholar whose engagement with hermeneutic phenomenology is widely respected is Max van Manen [38]. Van Manen acknowledges that hermeneutic phenomenology 'does not let itself be deceptively reduced to a methodical schema or an interpretative set of procedures [39].' Instead, this kind of phenomenology requires the researcher to read deeply into the philosophies of this tradition to grasp the project of hermeneutic phenomenological thinking, reading, and writing.

A contempo study published by Bynum et al. illustrates how hermeneutic phenomenology may exist employed in HPE [2]. In this paper, Bynum et al. explored the phenomenon of shame every bit an emotion experienced past medical residents and offer insights into the effects of shame experiences on learners. Every bit a means in scholarly inquiry, this study demonstrates how hermeneutic phenomenology can provide insight into complex phenomena that are inextricably entwined in HPE.

Conclusion

Incorporating phenomenological inquiry methodologies into HPE scholarship creates opportunities to learn from the experiences of others. Phenomenological research can broaden our understanding of the complex phenomena involved in learning, behaviour, and communication that are germane to our field. Merely success in these efforts is dependent upon both improved awareness of the potential value of these approaches, and enhanced familiarization with the underlying philosophical orientation and methodological approaches of phenomenology. Perhaps almost critically, HPE scholars must construct inquiry processes that align with the tenets of the methodology chosen and the philosophical roots that underlie it. This alignment is the cornerstone for establishing research rigour and trustworthiness.

Post-obit a specific checklist of verification activities or mandatory processes cannot buoy the quality and rigour of a item phenomenological study. Instead, across maintaining fidelity between enquiry question, paradigm, and selected methodology, robust phenomenological enquiry involves deep appointment with the data via reading, cogitating writing, re-reading and re-writing. In Moustakas'south approach to transcendental phenomenology, the researcher reads the information, reduces the information to meaning units, re-reads those reductions to and so engage in thematic clustering, compares the data, writes descriptions, and then on in an ongoing process of continually engaging with the data and writing reflections and summaries until the researcher can describe the essence of the lived experience [18]. In hermeneutic phenomenology, scholars describe engaging in a hermeneutic circle wherein the researcher reads the data, constructs a vague understanding, engages in reflective writing, and so re-engages with the text with revised understandings [40]. In cycles of reading and writing, of attending to the whole of the text and the parts, the hermeneutic researcher constructs an understanding of the lived experience. In both traditions, deep appointment with the data via reading, writing, re-reading and re-writing is foundational. While this engagement work is not standardized, Polkinghorne suggests that rich descriptions of phenomenological research might be characterized past qualities such equally vividness, richness, accurateness, and elegance [41]. While we question how these qualities might be evaluated in a qualitative written report, they confirm that attention to the depth of appointment in reading and writing of the phenomenological information is a necessary condition for rigour.

Phenomenology is a valuable tool and research strategy. For those who are not familiar with its philosophical underpinnings or methodological awarding, it tin can seem challenging to apply to HPE scholarship. We hope this manuscript will serve to relieve some of the apprehension in because the use of phenomenology in future piece of work. We believe that the appropriate awarding of phenomenology to HPE's research questions will help the states to accelerate our understanding by learning from the experiences of others.

Disclaimer

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, the United States Department of Defence or other federal agencies.

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Funding

Intramural Grant, Uniformed Services University

Author data

Affiliations

1. Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Md, USA

   Brian E. Neubauer & Lara Varpio

2. General Internal Medicine Service, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD, United states of america

   Brian E. Neubauer

3. Department of Preventative Medicine and Biostatistics, Uniformed Services Medical Centre, Bethesda, MD, USA

   Catherine T. Witkop

Respective author

Correspondence to Brian Eastward. Neubauer.

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The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the US Air Forcefulness, Department of Defence force, or the Us Government.

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Neubauer, B.Due east., Witkop, C.T. & Varpio, 50. How phenomenology can help united states acquire from the experiences of others. Perspect Med Educ viii, ninety–97 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-ii

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• Published: 05 April 2019

• Issue Date: April 2019

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2

Keywords

• Transcendental phenomenology
• Hermeneutic phenomenology
• Qualitative

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Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2

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